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number of citations in the References section that discuss the usage of average models in detail Transient models represent switching circuits in the time domain, in a manner as close to actual functionality as possible It may seem desirable to simulate all circuits using transient models; however, transient models simulate much more slowly than their averaged model counterparts Many characteristics, such as open-loop gain, are dif cult to simulate using transient models Both types of models are included in this book and both may be used in the transient analyses for different purposes You will quickly learn to determine which modeling technique you should apply to a speci c problem The previous example uses transient simulation, which simulates the actual time-dependent functions of the circuit, such as the turnon and turn-off of the semiconductor switch There are many bene ts of using this modeling approach.

[E(Rm)

8

passing through the various layers of the model; the other is to start with value at the top and work downward Both are valid, but must be utilized appropriately Let s consider the functional differences between the seven layers Features, functions, and benefits are characteristics that define the technical capabilities and defining parameters of a device or service A prominent or distinctive aspect, quality, or characteristic, the definition of a feature, clearly speaks to such a thing as a physical footprint (the space a device occupies in a central office), the amount of heat it generates while in operation, the amount of electricity it consumes, backplane capacity, and component redundancy Function, the action for which (something) is particularly fitted or employed, describes the technical inner workings of a device or software module that result in some sort of operational value for the purchaser of the product.

The model is very accurate; it displays phenomena such as switching spikes, propagation delays, and ripple and sampling effects; and it allows testing of different control ICs There are also disadvantages of the nonlinear approach Simulations tend to take much longer, although with the ever-increasing computer power available on the desktop, simulations that were impractical only a few years ago can now be run in a matter of minutes There are some techniques that are available to speed up the simulation They are listed in Chap 9 More importantly, however, AC analysis is not possible because switching devices are either in their on or off state To simulate such a circuit, the switching action must be averaged so that a small signal model can be generated Average modeling is reasonably accurate and extremely fast and supports AC as well as some transient analyses.

A benefit, something that promotes or enhances well-being; an advantage, provides precisely that: an advantage that the product conveys to the customer; although it is typically interpreted as a technical rather than a market advantage, such as the ability to perform a hot swap of a component Moving up the stack, we come to application, The act of putting something to a special use or purpose An application refers to the manner in which a product is actually used usually the reason that the customer purchased the item in the first place and the first occurrence of possible value to the consumer Service, an act of assistance or benefit to another or others, refers to the process of converting what is usually a generic application set into a more focused, almost customized treatment to address a specific set of needs for a client.

The risk-free rate (Rf ) that we use for valuation is the rate on the long-term (10-year) Treasury bond. The risk premium is a function of two factors: the stock s beta ( i ), and the market risk premium, which is the expected return on the overall stock market (Rm) minus the risk free rate [E(Rm) Rf ]. When we value a risky asset, we assume that investors are risk averse and therefore prefer less risk to more risk; see Principle 3. Because of risk aversion, investors diversify their holdings and seek the greatest expected return for their chosen level of risk, see Principle 9. And since investors hold diversified portfolios, the measure of risk for any new investment is only its systematic risk as measured by beta. So what does this mean in real life It means that investors won t buy risky securities unless they are paid higher returns. How much higher depends on the risk of the stock, as measured by its beta, and the amount of the market risk premium. We represent the simple CAPM risk/return relationship in Exhibit 2-8. If the stock market prices stocks in the manner consistent with the Capital Asset Pricing Model, the expected return on each stock should fall on the risk/return line shown in Exhibit 2-9.